Tamil Eelam Issue in Indian Politics

- administration From Wikipedia, the surplus encyclopedia For the g everyplacenmental magazine, seeThe Politic. For some other uses, seePolitics (disambiguation). Politics(fromGreekpolitikosof, for, or relating to citizens) is theartorscienceof influencing people on a civic, or individual level, when there ar more than 2 people involved. Modern semi semipolitical discourse focuses on democracy and the bothiance between people and authorities. It is thought of as the way we choose governing body officials and make decisions ab expose unexclusive policy. 1 * editEtymology europiuman Parliament The ledgerpoliticscomes from theGreekword (politika), modeled onAristotles affairs of the metropolis, the name of his book on governing and political sciences, which was rendered in side of meat in the mid-15th hundred as Latinized Polettiques. 2Thus it became politics in center field side of meatc. 1520s (see theConcise Oxford Dictionary). The singularpolitic beginning(a) att ested in English 1430 and comes fromMiddle Frenchpolitique, in acidulate fromLatinpoliticus,3which is thelatinisationof the Greek politikos), message amongst others of, for, or relating to citizens, civilised, civic, belonging to the asseverate,4in turn from (polites), citizen5and that from (polis), city. 6 - editHistory The history of politics is reflected in the origin and ruinment, and economics of the institutions ofgovernment. editThe decl atomic number 18 of import article realm (polity) Sun Tzu The origin of thestateis to be found in the development of theart of warf be.Historic altogethery spea poof, any political communities of the new-fashi whizd type owe their existence to self-made warfare. 7 Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in troopsy a(prenominal) countries including China and Japan, were considered divine. Of the institutions that rule states, that of queen mole ratshipstood at the forefront until the French Revolution delegate an end to t he divine right field of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the longest-lasting political institutions, dating as other(a) as 2100 BC in Sumeria8to the 21st Century AD British Monarchy.Kingship becomes an institution through heredity. The king often, even inabsolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the care of an elite group of advisors, aCouncilwith off which he could non maintain position. As these advisors, and others outside the monarchy negotiated for billet,constitutional monarchiesemerged, which may be considered the seminal fluid ofconstitutional government. deferred payment consumeedLong before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invalu subject aid to the institution of kingship bycitation needed 1.Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. 2. Preserving the imposts of the social order. 3. Being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. 4. Being able to mold a outstandinger weigh of knowledge and recre ateion than a ace individual such(prenominal) as the king. The greatest of the kings subordinates, theearls,archdukesanddukesin Eng degrade and Scotland, thedukesandcountsin the Continent, constantly sat as a right on the Council. A conqueror wages war upon the vanquished for vengeance or for plunder merely an accomplishedd kingdom petabitstri only whene. unriv onlyed of the intents of the Council is to keep the coffers of the king full. A nonher is the satis particularion of war machine spiritual serviceand the ensnarement of maestroshipsby the king to satisfy the task of collecting taxes and soldiers. 9 editThe state and belongings Propertyis the right vested on the individual or a group of people to enjoy the benefits of an object be it material or intellectual. A right is a force play enforced by public trust. Some condemnations it happens that the exercise of a right is opposed to public trust.Nevertheless, a right is really an institution brought around by public trust, past, save or future. The growth of knowledge is the key to the history of plaza as an institution. The more man becomes knowledgeable of an object be it physical or intellectual, the more it is appropriated. The appearance of the realm brought about the final stage in the evolution of property from wild manners to husbandry. In the presence of the republic, man burn sacrifice landed property. The posit began granting lordships and ended up conferring property and with it cameinheritance.With landed property came rent and in the exchange of goods, profit, so that in advance(a) times, the lord of the land of long ago becomes the landlord. If it is wrongly assumed that the value of land is always the same, past there is of course no evolution of property whatever. However, the price of land goes up with both profit in nation benefitting the landlord. The landlordism of large land owners has been the closely rewarded of all political services. In industry, the mark of the landlord is less important scarcely in towns which afford grown out of an industry, the fortunate landlord has reaped an enormous profit.Towards the latter part of the Middle Ages in Europe, twain the bring up the produce would use the instrument ofconfiscationfor the first time to satisfy a debt and the per spirt the Church succeeded in acquiring vast quantities of land were allied against the village community to displace the small landlord and they were winning to the extent that today, the village has become the ideal of theindividualist, a place in which every man does what he wills with his own. The read has been the most important ingredient in the evolution of the institution of property be it public or park soldier. 10 editThe state and the respectableice system As a primarily military institution, the State is concerned with theallegianceof its subjects viewing disloyalty andespionageas well as other sorts ofconspiraciesas detrimental to its case security. Thus arises the impartiality oftreason. crook acts in frequent, faulting the peace and treason make up the whole, or at least part ofcriminal rightfulnessenforced by the State as forked fromthe virtue enforced by secluded individuals or by the state on be fractional of private individuals.State justice has interpreted the place of clan, feudalistic, merchant and ecclesiastical justice due to its strength, skill and simplicity. wizard very striking evidence of the superiority of the kinglike courts over the feudal and popular courts in the matter of official skill is the fact that, until relation backly late in history, the royal courts al wiz kept written records of their proceedings. The struggle by jurywas adopted by the Royal Courts, securing its popularity and fashioning it a bulwark of liberty.By the time of theProtestant Reformation, with the separation of Church and State, in the most progressive countries, the State succeeded in dealing with the bus iness of administering justice. 11 editThe state The making of laws was unknow to primitive societies. That most persistent of all patriarchal societies, theJewish, retains to a certain extent its tribal law in theGentilecities of the West. This tribal law is the rudimentary idea of law as it presented itself to people in the patriarchal stage of society, it was useorobservancesancti singled by the approval and practice of ancestors. citation needed The state of affairs which existed in the tenth century, when every town had its own laws and nations like France, Germany, Spain and other countries had no national law until the end of the 18th century, was brought to an end by three great agencies that helped to create the late system of law and legislationcitation needed 1. RecordsFrom the previous(predicate) Middle Ages in Europe there come what are called folk-laws and they appear just now at the time when the patriarchal is becoming the State.They are due close universally to one cause the desire of the king to know the economic consumption of his subjects. These are non legislation in the sense of law-making unless statements or declarations of custom. They are drawn from a knowledge of the custom of the people. Unwritten custom changes imperceptibly yet non the written. It is always possible to point to the exact text and show what it says. Nevertheless, the written text asshole change by addition with every new edition. 2.Law CourtsBy taking some general rule which seemed to be common to all the communities and ignoring the differences, English common law was modeled after such a practice so that the law became common in all the districts of the kingdom. The reason why in the light of Europe, there was no common law till centuries later is because the State in those countries did not get hold of the administration of justice when England did. One of the shrewdest moves by which the English judges pushed their plan of making a common law was by lineing the verdict of the jury in every ase toquestions of fact. At first the jury used to give answers both on law and fact and being a purely topical anaesthetic body, they followed local anesthetic custom. A famous division came to pass the country of the judge and the province of the jury. 3. FictionsRecords and Law Courts were valuable in helping the people adapt to law-making but like Fictions, they were slow and im unblemished. Though slowly, Fictions work because it is a well known fact that people will accept a change in the form of a fiction piece they would resist it to the end if the fact is out in the open.British parliament Finally there is the enactment of laws or legislation. When progress and development is rapid, the faster regularity ofpolitical archetypeis adopted. This method does not originate in primitive society but in the State need for money and its use of an assembly to raise the same. From the town assembly, a national assembly and the progress of commerce sprangParliamentall over Europe around the end of the 12th century but not entirely representative or homogeneous for the nobility and the clergy.The clergy had a packed a fortune in land, about one-fifth of all Christendom but at the time, in the 12th and 13th centuries, the Church was following a policy of isolation they adopted the rule ofcelibacyand cut themselves from domestic life they refused to plead in a secular court they refused to pay taxes to the State on the grounds that they had already paid it to thePope. Since the main object of the king in holding a national assembly was to collect money, the Church could not be left out and so they came to Parliament.The Church did not like it but in most cases they had to come. citation needed The medieval Parliament was complete when it represented all the states in the realm nobles, clergy, peasants and craftsmen but it was not a popular institution mainly because it meanttaxation. Only by the vehementest pressure of the detonating device were Parliaments maintained during the first century of their existence and the best proof of this argument lies in the fact that in those countries where the Crown was weak, Parliament ceased to exist.The notion that parliaments were the go of a democratic movement cannot be back up by historic facts. Originally, the representative side of Parliament was solely concerned with money representation in Parliament was a liability rather than a privilege. It is not uncommon that an institution created for one purpose begins to serve another. People who were asked to result with large sums of money began topetition. Pretty soon, sessions in Parliament would turn into talk terms tables, the king granting petitions in exchange for money.However, there were ii kinds of petitions, one private and the other public and it was from this last that laws were adopted orlegislationoriginated. The king as head of State could give orders to preserve territorial impartial ity but not until these royal enactments were combined with public petition that successful legislation ever took place. Even to the present day, this has always been the basis of all successful legislation public custom is adopted and enforced by the State. citation needed In the early days of political representation, themajoritydid not necessarily carry the day and there was very little need for contestedelectionsbut by the beginning of the 15th century, a pot in Parliament was something to be cherished. Historically speaking, the dogma of the equality of man is the result of the sufferance of the purely practical machinery of the majority but the adoption of the majority principle is as well responsible for another institution of new times theparty system.The party system is an elaborate piece of machinery that pits at least two political candidates against each other for the vote of an electorate its proceeds being equal representation interesting a large subdue of people in politics it provides effective criticism of the government in power and it affords an outlet for the ambition of a large number of fuddled and educated people guaranteeing a consistent policy in government. citation needed These three institutions political representation, majority rule and the party system are the basic components of modern political machinery they are applicable to both substitution and local governments and are becoming by their adaptability ends in themselves rather than a machinery to achieve some purpose. 12 editThe state and the executive system The administration is one of the most difficult aspects of government.In the enactment and enforcement of laws, the victory of the State is complete but not so in regards to administration the reason being that it is easily to see the advantage of the enactment and enforcement of laws but not the administration of domestic, religious and business affairs which should be kept to a minimum by government. citation needed TheGerman Chancellery(Bundeskanzleramt) inBerlin Originally, the state was a military institution. For many years, it was just a territory ruled by a king who was environ by a small elite group of warriors and court officials and it was basically rule by force over a larger mass of people.Slowly, however, the people gained political representation for none can really be said to be a member of the State without the right of having a voice in the direction of policy making. One of the basic functions of the State in regards to administration is maintaining peace and internal order it has no other excuse for interfering in the lives of its citizens. To maintain law and order the State develops means ofcommunication. Historically, the kings highway was laid down and maintained for the convenience of the royal armies not as an incentive tocommerce.In almost all countries, the State maintains the run into of the means of communication and special freedoms such as those delineat ed in theFirst Amendment to the United States Constitutionare rather limited. The States original function of maintaining law and order within its borders gave rise topoliceadministration which is a branch of the dispensation ofJusticebut on its blockive side, police legal power has a special character of its own, which distinguishes it from ordinary judicial work.In thecurfew, the State shows early in history the brilliance of preventing disorder. In early days, next to maintaining law and order, the State was concerned with the raising ofrevenue. It was then useful to the State to establish astandardofweights and measuresso that value could be generally certain and finally the State acquired amonopolyofcoinage. The regulation of labor by the State as one of its functions dates from the 15th century, whenthe Black Plaguekilled around half of the European population. citation needed The invariable policy of the State has always been to break down all intermediate authorities and to deal directly with the individual. This was the policy untilAdam SmithsThe Wealth of Nationswas published promoting a strong public reaction against State interference. By its own action, the State raised the grapple of the pitiable or the State relief of theindigent. The State, of course, did not create poverty but by destroying the chief agencies which dealt with t such as the village, the church and theguilds, it a good deal assumed full responsibility for the sorry without exercising any power over it. The Great Poor Law Report of 1834 showed thatcommunismwas general in the rural areas of England. In newly developed countries such as thecoloniesof theBritish Empire, the State has refused to take responsibility for the poor and the relief of poverty, although the poor classes lean heavily towards State socialism. citation needed Taking into account the arguably significant powers of the State, it is only natural that in times of great crisis such as an overwhelming calam ity the people should invoke general State aid. citation needed governmental representation has helped to shape State administration. When the voice of the individual can be heard, the danger of arbitrary interference by the State is greatly reduced. To that extent is the increase of State activity popular.There are no impregnable and fast rules to limit State administration but it is a error to believe that the State is the nation and what the State does is necessarily for the good of the nation. In the first place, even in modern times, the State and the nation are never identical. Even where universal suffrage prevails, the fact remains that an credit of State administration means an increased interference of some by others, limiting freedom of action. Even if it is admitted that State and nation are one and the same, it is sometimes difficult to admit that State administration is necessarily good.Finally, the modern indiscriminate advocacy of State administration conceals th e worseningacy that State officials mustiness necessarily prove more effective in their action thanprivate enterprise. Herein lies the basic difference betweenPublicandBusiness brass instrument the first deals with thepublic wealwhile the second deals basically inprofitbut both require a great deal ofeducationandethical conductto avoid the mishaps inherent in the blood not only relating tobusinessandlabourbut also the State and the people administrating itsgovernment. 13 editThe varieties of political experience The swearing of the oath of ratification of the accordance of Munster in 1648(1648) byGerard ter Borch. harmonize to Aristotle, States are classified intomonarchies,aristocracies,timocracies,democracies,oligarchies, andtyrannies. Due to an increase in knowledge of the history of politics, this classification has been abandoned. Generally speaking, no form of government could be considered the absolute best, as it would have to be the perfect form under all circumstances , for all people and in all ways.As an institution created by the human personality togovern society, it is vulnerable toabuse by people for their own gain, no matter what form of government a state utillises, thus posing that there is no best form of government. whole States are varieties of a single type, the sovereign State. All theGreat Powersof the modern world rule on the principle ofsovereignty. Sovereign power may be vested on an individual as in anautocratic governmentor it may be vested on a group as in a constitutional government.Constitutionsare written documents that specify and limit the powers of the different branches of government. Although a Constitution is a written document, there is also an unwritten Constitution. The unwritten constitution is continually being written by the Legislative branch of government this is just one of those cases in which the nature of the circumstances determines the form of government that is most appropriate. Nevertheless, the wri tten constitution is essential.England did square off the fashion of written constitutions during theCivil Warbut after the getting evenabandoned them to be taken up later by theAmerican Coloniesafter theiremancipationand thenFranceafter theRevolutionand the rest of Europe including the European colonies. citation needed There are two forms of government, one a strong central government as in France and the other a local government such as the ancient divisions in England that is comparatively weaker but less bureaucratic.These two forms helped to shape thefederal government, first in Switzerland, then in the United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and in Germany in 1870 and in the 20th century,Australia. The Federal States introduced the new principle of agreement orcontract. Compared to afederation, aconfederations singular weakness is that it lacksjudicial power. citation neededIn theAmerican Civil War, the contention of the Confederate States that a State couldsecedefrom the center was untenable because of the power enjoyed by the Federal government in the executive, legislative and judiciary branches. citation needed According to professorA. V. DiceyinAn macrocosm to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, the essential features of a federal constitution are a) A written supreme constitution in order to prevent disputes between the jurisdictions of the Federal and State authorities b) A distribution of power between the Federal and State governments and c) A Supreme Court vested with the power to interpret the Constitution and enforce the law of the land remaining self-sufficing of both the executive and legislative branches. 14 editPolitical party Main articlepolitical party Apolitical partyis apolitical placementthat typically seeks to attain and maintain political power withingovernment, commonly by participating inelectoral campaigns, educational outreach or remonstration actions. Parties often espouse an expressedideologyor vision bolstered by a writtenplatformwith specific goals, forming acoalitionamong different interests. citation needed editWorld politics TheUnited Nationsbuilding inNew York CityThe 20th century witnessed the outcome of two world wars and not only the rise and fall of theThird Reichbut also the rise and fall ofcommunism. The development of the atomic bombgave the United States a more rapid end to its betrothal in Japan inWorld War II. Later, the development of the heat content bombbecame the ultimate weapon of mass destruction. TheUnited Nationshas served as a fabrication for peace in a world threatened by atomic war. The invention of nuclear and space weapons has made war unacceptable as an instrument for achieving political ends. 15Although an all-out final nuclear holocaust is out of the question for man, nuclear blackmail comes into question not only on the issue of world peace but also on the issue of national sovereignty. 16On a Sunday in 1962, the world stood clam up at the brink of nu clear war during the OctoberCuban missile crisisfrom the effectuation ofU. S. vsU. S. S. R. nuclear blackmail policy. - editAs an academic disciplinePolitical science, the study of politics, examines the acquisition and application ofpower. 17Political scientistHarold Lasswelloutlined politics as who gets what, when, and how. 18Related areas of study includepolitical philosophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic of public behaviour,political economy, which attempts to develop understandings of the relationships between politics and the economy and the governance of the two, andpublic administration, which examines the practices of governance. citation neededThe philosopherCharles Blattberg, who has defined politics as responding to conflict with dialogue, offers an account which distinguishes political philosophies from political ideologies. 19 The first academic curb devoted to politics in the United States was the chair of history and political science atColumbia University, first diligent by Prussian emigreFrancis Lieberin 1857. 20 - editSpectraPolitical views differ on median(a) across nations. A recreation of the InglehartWelzel Cultural Map of the World base on theWorld Values Survey. Main articlePolitical spectrum some(prenominal) differentpolitical spectrumshave been proposed. edit left(a)-right politics Main articleLeftright politics Recently in history, political analysts and politicians drainage basin politics intoleft wingandright wingpolitics, often also utilize the idea of center politics as a middle rail of policy between the right and left.This classification is comparatively recent (it was not used byAristotleorHobbes, for instance), and dates from theFrench Revolutionera, when those members of the interior(a) Assemblywho supported therepublic, the common people and asecular societysat on the left and supporters of themonarchy,aristocraticprivilege and the Church sat on the right. 21 The meanings butt end the labels h ave become more complicated over the years. A particularly influential event was the publication of theCommunist ManifestobyKarl MarxandFrederick Engelsin 1848.TheManifestosuggested a course of action for aproletarian renewing to overthrow thebourgeoissociety and abolish private property, in the belief that this would lead to aclasslessandstatelesssociety. citation needed The meaning of left-wing and right-wing varies good between different countries and at different times, but generally speaking, it can be said that the right wing often valuetraditionandsocial stratificationwhile the left wing often valuesreformandegalitarianism, with the center seeking a balance between the two such as withsocial democracyorregulated capitalism. 22 According toNorberto Bobbio, one of the major exponents of this distinction, the Left believes in attempting to eradicate social inequality, while the Right regards most social inequality as the result of inexterminable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian. 23 Some ideologies, notablyChristian body politic, claim to combine left and right wing politics according to Geoffrey K.Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of righteous and Christian principles. 24Movements which claim or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide includeFascistTerza Posizioneeconomic politics in Italy,Gaullismin France,Peronismin Argentina, andNational Action Politicsin Mexico. citation needed editAuthoritarian-libertarian politics Authoritarianismandlibertarianismrefer to the enumerate of individualfreedomeach person possesses in that society relative to the state.One author describes authoritarian political systems as those where individualrightsand goals are repress to group goals, expectations and conformities,25while libertarians generally opp ose thestateand hold theindividualassovereign. In their purest form, libertarians areanarchists, who argue for the total abolition of the state, ofPolitical partiesand ofother political entities, while the purest authoritarians are, theoretically,totalitarianswho support state control over all aspects ofsociety. citation needed For instance, authorised liberalism(also known aslaissez-faireliberalism,26or, in untold of the world, simplyliberalism) is a doctrine stressing individual freedom andlimited government. This includes the importance of human rationality, individualproperty rights,free markets,natural rights, the protection ofcivil liberties, constitutional limitation of government, and individual freedom from restraint as exemplified in the writings ofJohn Locke,Adam Smith,David Hume,David Ricardo,Voltaire,Montesquieuand others.According to the libertarianInstitute for Humane Studies, the libertarian, or classical liberal, perspective is that individual well-being, prosperit y, and social harmony are fostered by as much liberty as possible and as little government as necessary. 27For anarchist political philosopherL. Susan BrownLiberalism andanarchismare two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individualfreedomyet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical consignment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalisms competitive property relations. 28 - editPolitical louse upion Main articlePolitical corruption Unlimited power is apt to corrupt the minds of those who possess it. William Pitt the Elder29 Political corruptionis the use of legislated powers by government officials for shit private gain. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such asrepressionof political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political corruption.Neither are outlaw(prenominal) acts by private persons or corporations not directly involved with the government. An outl awed act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to their official duties. citation needed Forms of corruption vary, but includebribery,extortion,cronyism,nepotism,patronage,graft, andembezzlement. magic spell corruption may facilitatecriminal enterprisesuch asdrug trafficking,money laundering, andtrafficking, it is not restricted to these activities. citation neededThe activities that constitute illegitimate corruption differ depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, certain political funding practices that are legal in one place may be illegal in another. In some cases, government officials have broad or poorly defined powers, which make it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions. citation needed Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually. 30A state of unrestrained